People with a History: An Online Guide to Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Trans* History
Section II Medieval Worlds
Editor: Paul Halsall
Contents:
Section II: Medieval Worlds
Go to the following pages for other parts of People with a History
Chapter 5: Early Christianity
There is no area of discussion about homosexuality which is more
contentious than the interrelationship of Christianity and homosexuality.
The whole issue is irretrievably bound up with modern concerns
because of Christianity's continued importance. On one hand there
are conservative Christians who insist that modern Christian hostility
to gays has a continuous tradition and that this is a good thing.
On another hand the notion that Christianity caused homophobia
was very important to early gay scholars working to explain gay
oppression. But it has also turned out to be the case, in the
United States at least, that the phenomenon of gay churches has
been so successful that in almost every area they are the largest
GLB organizations. LGB Christians have been unwilling to surrender
the comforts of their faith and LGB Christian scholars, seeking
to find a space for themselves in their past have challenged the
orthodoxies of both conservative Christians and radical gays.
There is no doubt that Christian writers in every century have
voiced criticism, sometimes virulent and obscene criticism, of
homosexual activity and of "homosexuals" or other gender
transgressive groups. The counter to this has not been to deny
such voices, but to seek for more positive aspects of Christian
history. And there is little doubt that this positive history
also exists: even in the virulently anti-homosexual polemic of
John Chrysostom, for instance, one finds evidence of entire Christian
communities [in Antioch] which were unworried about homosexuality.
Even the Bible itself, it turns out, contains "pro-gay"
texts.
How much one reads such discussions as "history" and
how much as modern theological discussion is an interesting question.
The discussion is now, however, moving beyond these fairly fixed
positions. There is now increasing exploration of gender, both
homosexual and heterosexual, as an important metaphor in Christian
discourse. The person of Christ, a forgiving deity, who bleeds
in order to nourish, and whose body is quite literally penetrated
on the cross often ends up being described in a variety of "queer"
ways: as a mother hen, as a eunuch, as a lover. When Christian
writers tried to discuss female sanctity, they repeatedly end
up by transgendering, or "queering" as a modern literary
"theorist" might say, the holy woman in question: there
is no higher praise for a Christian saint than that she has a
"male soul in a female body", as Gregory of Nyssa says
about his sister Makrina. Startling indeed to those who recognize
this as a term for modern lesbianism. And when Christian authors
tried to make sense of males in love with a male God, they end
up asserting that the male soul is feminine (as indeed it is grammatically
in both Greek and Latin), and that it is penetrated by God to
bring forth the child of salvation.
These sorts of discussions are not comfortable for either religious
conservatives, gay radicals, or even gay Christians looking for
gay ancestors. What the discussions are doing is opening up new
pathways to an appreciation of the "queerness" of the
world's most popular religion.
Discussions:
- Bernadette Brooten:
Early Church Responses to Lesbian Sex,
The Harvard Gay & Lesbian Review, Volume III, No. 4,
Fall, 1996.
- Homosexuality in the New Testament [At Upenn]
An extended and very informative collection of scholarly Internet
discussions.
- Thomas B. Dozeman,
Creation and Procreation the Biblical Teaching on Homosexuality, Union Seminary Quarterly Review 49:3-4
-
Christopher T. Lee, Paul's Malakos: Its Evolution from Classical Greece Through the Roman World [At Internet Archive, from Upenn]
- Nonna Verna Harrison ,
The Feminine Man in Late Antique Ascetic Piety, Union Seminary Quarterly Review 48:3-4
Texts: Biblical
-
Biblical Texts,
listing of all texts. [At Internet Archive, from Lesbian, Gay and Bisexual Catholic Handbook]
-
Full text of all Bible texts. KJV. [At Internet Archive, from Lesbian, Gay and Bisexual Catholic
Handbook]
-
Pro-Gay Bible Texts - Introduction, [At Internet Archive, from Lesbian, Gay and Bisexual Catholic Handbook]
-
All the Pro-Gay Texts,
[At Internet Archive, from Lesbian, Gay and Bisexual Catholic Handbook]
-
All the Eunuchs of the Bible,
[At Internet Archive, from Lesbian, Gay and Bisexual Catholic Handbook]
There is some evidence that the major sexual minority of
Biblical times was eunuchs - yet on the whole the Bible is pro-
eunuch, It certainly has a lot of them.
Texts: Patristic
-
The Didache (1st C. CE), or The Teaching of the Twelve Apostles, [At
Spurgeon.org]
One of the earliest Christian texts to condemn pederasty
- The Secret Gospel of Mark
References, and some of the text, of this "special edition"
of The Gospel of Mark were included in a letter of Clement of
Alexandria. Some have argued that the text is witness to intense
homoeroticism among early Christians, including - controversially
- Jesus.
-
Letter of Barnabas,
[At Early Christian Writings]
Chapter 10 attempts a "spiritual" explanation of the
food codes of the Mosaic Law. It connects the forbidding of hares
with a prohibition against "unnatural lusts", apparently,
according to John Boswell, because the hare was supposed to grow
a new anus each year.
- Apocalypse of Peter [1st half
2nd C.]
Discusses male and female homosexuals being tortured in Hell.
- Acts of Thomas excerpts, [Early
3rd C.]. The full text is available at the
Non-Canonical Homepage
Discusses male and female homosexuals being tortured in Hell.
- Apocalypse of Paul [Also known
as the Vision of Paul] [3rd C.]
Discusses male and female homosexuals being tortured in Hell.
- Conciliar Legislation
- Passion of SS. Sergius and Bacchus (3rd C. CE) [At CMU]
The story of the martyrdom of two soldier saints. In this version,
the earliest, they are clearly indicated as emotionally tied.
In the later "Metaphrastic" version they are referred
to as erotic "lovers"
-
Church Fathers on Gender Variance,
[At Aztriad]
This is an interesting compilation of comments, especially from
Tatian, on gender variance. Unfortunately no citations are given.
Moreover, the page is devoted to showing Christian hostility to
gender variance, but the historical reality was considerably more
complex. There is an interesting reference to Lesbian marriage
as well!
- Clement of Alexandria (d.c.215 CE): Paidogogus 2:10 - On Hares, Hyenas and Homosexuality
Unfortunately the most interesting parts here are in Latin.
- Clement of Alexandria (d.c.215 CE): Paidogogus 3:3 - On Effeminate Men and Masculine Women
A very interesting text which includes some suggestion of Lesbian
marriage in Egypt.
- Clement of Alexandria (d.c.215 CE): Paidogogus 3:4 - On Women and Effeminate Men
Clement seems to describe "fag-hags" in the Third century.
- Clement of Alexandria (d.c.215 CE): Paidogogus 3:5 - On Behavior in Bathhouses
- Clement of Alexandria (d.c.215 CE): Stromateis 4:8 - On Equality and Inequality of the Sexes
The "effeminates" are lower than men and women.
- St. Paulinus of Nola (353-431 CE): To Ausonius
A beautiful love poem by Paulinus.
- St. Augustine (354-430 CE): from the Confessions
On his relationship with another man.
-
St. Augustine (354-430 CE): Confessions,
(full text) [At Stoa]
- St. Augustine (354-430 CE): Confessions,
(full text - more modern translation) [At Medieval Sourcebook]
-
St. Jerome (c.347-420 CE), Letter LV,
[At CCEL]
A woman may not divorce her husband on account of his vices, even
if he is a sodomite!
Websites:
Back to Contents
Chapter 6: Byzantium
One of the oddities Byzantine studies is that it has long attracted
homosexual scholars, but virtually none of them have written about
Byzantine homosexuality. There may be reason for this - in comparison
with the mass of information about Ancient Greek and Roman homosexuality,
the thousand years of Byzantine culture is poorly served. Entire
classical genres disappeared - plays, satires, secular philosophy.
There has been, instead, a legal tradition to explore; rather
a lot of monastic regulation; and the occasional comments in elite
historiography on homosexual activity by some emperors. John Boswell's Same Sex Unions rather surprisingly (to Byzantinists at
least) for a time has made Byzantine liturgical manuscripts a
focus of much interest.
But there is considerable room for further exploration. A number
of saints lives reveal diverse opinions, and relatively little
shock, about homosexuality (usually "andromania" in
these sources), but they have not been fully exploited. Some saints
lives also discuss homoerotic pairings with little comment. Although
certainly not sexually active, it is also common to find Byzantine
saints paired with each other in relationships which can be analyzed
from the perspective of desire - "friendship" hardly
begins to describe what they are about.
Other texts which may yield more are the small number of Byzantine
romances now coming under increased scrutiny. It may be thought
that hey are about "heterosexuality", but much current
scholarship in western literature suggests that this will not
be a satisfactory way in which to evaluate them.
Byzantium also supported an important sexual category not common
in modern life - the eunuchs who rose to prominence in Church
and state. There was even a monastery specifically for eunuchs.
Comments on this group, as with any liminal group, help explain
a society's gender expectations.
Finally, it cannot be overlooked that ancient texts tend to survive
in Byzantine made copies. Which texts were copied, how often,
and where are all answerable questions which may yield insight
into Byzantine mores. While they did not write much homoerotic
literature, they did copy it and, presumably, read it. Why?
Discussions:
- Claudine Dauphin,
Brothels, Baths and Babes Prostitution in the Byzantine Holy Land, Classics Ireland 3, 1996
- Mikhail Min: On Homosexuality [At CoptNet]
A remarkably misinformed discussion of homosexuality in Coptic
thought, but useful enough for its patristic references. Its discussion
of "sodomy" should entertain anyone who has read Mark
Jordan's book on the subject.
Texts:
- Coptic Spell: For a Man to Obtain a Male Lover,
Egypt, [poss. 6th C.]
-
John Chrysostom (d. 407 CE): Sermon on Romans 1:26-27,
= Homily 4 [At CCEL]
- John Chrysostom (d. 407 CE): Against the Opponents of Monastic Life 3
No friend of homosexuals, Chrysostom nevertheless reveals apparent
acceptance of homosexual activity among Antiochene Christians.
- Justinian I: Novel 77, [538 CE] and Novel 141, [544 CE]
Includes texts of earlier Roman legislation.
- Procopius (c.500- d. after 562 CE): The Secret History,
(complete text) [At Medieval Sourcebook]
Includes a sympathetic account of Justinian's attacks on homosexuals
- John Malalas: World History 18:18,
(excerpt)
On two bishops tortured for homosexual activity
- John Nesteutes ("the Faster") (d.595 CE): Penitential,
Migne PG 88, 1893C
Distinguishes between three kinds of homosexual acts - giving,
getting, doing both. Unlike ancient Greek views, it was more acceptable
to be "passive".
- The Ecloga on Sexual Crimes (8th Cent.),
[Eclogues 17.33][At Medieval Sourcebook]
- Theophanes: Chronographia, 443.15
On Nicephorus I
- Theodore of Studium (late 8th/early 9th C. CE): Reform Rules,
[At Medieval Sourcebook]
- Arethas: Scholia
Apparently Arethas was the first to use "Lesbian"
in its modern sense (although Lucian did connect female homosexuality
with the island).
- Two Versions of Rite of Adelphopoiia [At Medieval Sourcebook]
- The Life of St. Theodore of Sykeon (7th Cent.),
Chapters 134-135.
An adelphopoiia relationship is established between St. Theodore
and Patriarch Thomas of Constantinople.
- Chin Bratotvoreniyu [At QRD]
Old Church Slavonic text of the Rite of Brotherhood, abbreviated,
with standard liturgical prayers (most of Litany, Antiphons, etc.)
omitted. Cf. Jacobus Goar, Euchologion (1st ed., Paris 1647; 2nd
ed., Venice 1730), pp. 706-709, s.v. "Akolouthia eis Adelphopoiian
Pneumatiken." From: Velikii Potrebnik, printed by Edinovertsii
in Moscow (Now called Belokrinitsky Hierarchy of Old Rite), in
the year 1904. Transcribed by Nikita Syrnikov. Translated by Fr.
Basil Isaacks April 1, 1995.
- Church of Greece on Adelphopoiia [At QRD]
- Life of Andrew Salos
- Life of Basil the Younger
- Life of Mary the Younger (10-11th C )
- Michael Psellus (11th C.): On Basil II
- Michael Psellus (11th C.): On Constantine VIII
- Michael Psellus (11th C.): On Constantine IX Monomachus
Weblinks:
-
Byzantium: Byzantine Studies on the Internet
- Roz Moz
This is a site on modern Greek Gays and Lesbians. Extensive bibliographical
guides.
- Kaliarda: The Gay Greek Dialect [At QRD]
Not clear how far back this patois goes back. It contains between
3000-5000 words. This site contains examples, and .WAV files and
is based on Elias' Petropoulos, Kaliarda, an Etymological Dictionary
of Greek Homosexuals' Slang, (Athens: Nefeli, Athens, 1980)
Back to Contents
Chapter 7: Latin Christian Middle
Ages
Discussions:
- also see Guide to John Boswell's Works
- Paul Halsall: The Experience of Homosexuality in the Middle Ages,
1988 [HTML]
-
Paul Halsall: Calendar of Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual and Transgender Saints,
[At Lesbian, Gay and Bisexual Catholic Handbook]
- Paul Halsall: Modern Gayness and Medieval Friends: Homoeroticism and Homophilia,
1997
- John Addington Symonds (1840-1893): The Dantesque and Platonic Ideals of Love (1893)
- Edward Carpenter (1884-1929): Iolaus: An Anthology of Friendship [chapter on middle ages]
- Gunnora Hallakarva: The Vikings and Homosexuality [Permitted, local copy of the version at the Viking Answer Lady Page]
A splendid synoptic and detailed account of current research.
- Jo Ann Hoeppner Moran (Cruz), The Roman De La Rose and the Thirteenth Century Prohibitions of Homosexuality ,
(a paper prepared for the Georgetown University Cultural Studies
Conference, "Cultural Frictions", October 27-28, 1995)
[At Georgetown]
- Glenn Burger, Queer Performativity and the Natural in Chaucer's Physician's and Pardoner's Tales [At Georgetown]
- Robert L. A. Clark (Kansas State U.) & Claire Sponsler
(U. Iowa): "Queer Play: The Cultural Work of Crossdressing in Medieval Drama",
Cultural Frictions Conference, Georgetown U., 1995 [At Georgetown]
- Martin Irvine, The Pen(is), Castration, and Identity: Abelard's Negotiations of Gender,
[At Georgetown]
- Jeffrey Jerome Cohen, et al: Medieval Masculinities: Heroism, Sanctity, and Gender [At Georgetown]
- Mediev-l List: Was Richard the Lionheart "Gay"?:
An Internet Discussion
- Discussion: Paul Halsall et al.: Braveheart: The "Inning" of Piers Gaveston
On Pierre Chaplais' book, which claimed that Edward II and Gaveston
were "adoptive brothers".
- Thomas L. Long: Julian of Norwich's "Christ as Mother" and Medieval Constructions of Gender,
March 18, 1995, [At Long's Homepage]
Reviews:
-
Keith Busby: John Baldwin, The Language of Sex [Review at The Medieval Review] John W. Baldwin. The Language
of Sex: Five Voices from Northern France around 1200. Chicago:
Chicago Univ. Press, 1994.
-
Elaine E. Whitaker: Gender Rhetorics [Review at The Medieval Review] Gender Rhetorics: Postures
of Dominance and Submission in History. Ed. Richard C. Trexler.
Medieval and Renaissance Texts and Studies 113. Binghamton, NY:
CEMERS, 1994.
-
Jeffrey Jerome Cohen: Feminist Approaches to the Body [Review at The Medieval Review] Feminist Approaches to
the Body in Medieval Literature, edited by Linda Lomperis
and Sarah Stanbury. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press,
1993.
-
Alison Taufer: Louise Mirrer: Women, Jews, and Muslims ... Reconquest Castile[Review
at The Medieval Review] Louise Mirrer, Women, Jews, and
Muslims in the Texts of Reconquest Castile. Series: Studies
in Medieval and Early Modern Civilization. Ann Arbor: University
of Michigan Press, 1996
-
Paul Pascal: Gaisser: Catullus and His Renaissance Readers [Review at The Medieval Review] Julia Haig Gaisser. Catullus
and His Renaissance Readers. Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1993
On the reconstruction of Catullus' text after its medieval mauling.
-
Penelope Rainey: Walsh, ed.: Love Lyrics from the Carmina Burana [Review at The Medieval Review] P.G. Walsh (ed.), Love
Lyrics from the Carmina Burana. Chapel Hill: The University
of North Carolina Press, l993.
-
Michael Rocke: Forbidden Friendships - summary [At OUP]
Short summary of Rocke's important book on sexuality in Renaissance
Florence.
Texts: Religious
-
St. Benedict (late 5th C.): Rule, Chapter 22 [At OSB]
Sleeping arrangements for monks: part of the rationale was to
prevent sexual activity.
- Bede: Life of St. Cuthbert (7th Cent) Chapter 28 on St. Cuthbert's soul mate. The Full text is available, [At Medieval Sourcebook]
- Rudolf of Fulda: Life of St. Leoba (8th Cent) Chapters on the 28 on passionate friendship between St. Leoba
and Queen Hiltigard, one of Charlemagne's wives.
- Burchard of Worms (c.1012): Penitential, [Migne PL
140], Bk. 19.5
- St. Peter Damian (late 11th C.): 'The Different Types of Those Who Sin Against Nature',
from Liber Gomorrhianus [.c.1048-54] , [At Medieval Sourcebook]
- Alain de Lille: The Plaint of Nature (selections) , [At Medieval Sourcebook]
- Alain de Lille: The Plaint of Nature (full text), [At Medieval Sourcebook]
- St. Thomas Aquinas: On Unnatural Sex,
Summa Theologiae II-II, 154, 10-11, [At Medieval Sourcebook]
- St. Thomas Aquinas: On Lust, Sodomy, etc,
Summa Theologiae Question II-II, 154: On Lust [At EAWC]
Texts: Historical
Texts: Literary
Websites:
Back to Contents
Chapter 8: Islam
Islam was the last of the great world cultures to emerge. With
regard to homosexuality there are polar contrasts. On the one
hand The Qur'an seems to condemn homosexuality unequivocally,
on the other Muslim societies have shown a great deal of tolerance.
From the sexually explicit poems of Al-Andulus [Muslim Spain],
to the sexual comedy of The Arabian Nights, to the ecstatic
loving of Sufi mystics, to modern Morocco and Tunisia - the Islamic
world looked benevolently on men who love [usually younger] men.
In India, according to Richard Burton, it was among Muslims, not
Hindus, that homosexual eros was most accepted.
The first thing to note is that in some respects Islam has been
the most sex-positive of the great world religions: the Christ
and the Buddha were both sexually abstinent, but Muhammad was
sexually active with a number of wives, and had children. Sex
itself was not a bad thing, nor was abstinence desirable.
This sex-positivity of Islam is a starting point for further consideration.
So far, until very recently at least, research does not seem to
have gone beyond the basics, nor to have escaped the colonialist
gaze. The situation is likely to change.
Discussions:
- Richard Burton: Terminal Essay,
from his edition of the Arabian Nights.
Burton' compilation of data on variety of societies was meant
to explain some of the stories in The Nights. In doing
so, he provided first overview of Islamic homosexuality.
- Edward Carpenter (1884-1929): Iolaus: An Anthology of Friendship [chapter on Arabia and Persia], with extracts from Rumi, Hafiz
and Saadi.
-
Islam and Homosexuality [At Geocities]
An extremely homophobic article which claims Islam never tolerated
homosexuality.
Texts
Websites:
- Islam Homepage
One of the best Islamic sites, but not sympathetic to gays.
Chapter 9: Ancient and Medieval Jews
Discussions:
Texts
- Medieval Spanish Jewish Homoerotic Poetry: Selection
Websites:
Back to Contents
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